Niccolo Machiavelli 1469-1527
Chapter 1: Born into Poverty
Florence - pop 50,000
Florence of 15th century divided into 4 quarters-
- San Giovanni
- Santa Croce
- Santa Maria
- Santo Spirito
Popolani were prosperous merchants who slowly pushed aside the old feudal aristocracy as a ruling class in the 15th century. Florence transformed itself into a vital republic, independent; dominated by merchants and bankers. They grew prosperous on revived trade between east and west which picked up after the crusades.
1293 The Ordinances of Justice established a government that reflected a new order. The right to vote and hold office based on membership in one of the cities merchant or professional guilds, not solely based on landed aristocracy as it had been in past. Still the urban masses were excluded from political life. The Medici's dominated the republican government of the time.
"It is hard to imagine the systematic study of politics originating anywhere else but Florence, where the average citizen expected to share in his own government and young boys were schooled in Cicero, Aristotle and Livy to prepare them for debates they would later hold in the Palazzo della Signoria." Just like in ancient Rome.
The Family -
Bernardo Machiavelli m. Bartolomea Nelli - family originated in Val de Pesa, a wine making region in Chianti. There is not a lot of information on Niccolo's mother available. She could read as she made religious verse up for him so he could write. She had 3 children.
1465 Primavera
1468 Margarita
1469 Niccolo
Family home near Ponte Vecchio, Chorte de Machiavelli - cousins lived near each other. Opposite Machiavelli family home was Santa Felicita Parish where the Machiavelli family had a small chapel of San Gregorio. Domenico Ghirlandaio's fresco's are located inside the church.
Santa Felicita Parish, Florence
Family farm Sant Andrea in Percussina, 10 miles south of Florence. The Machiavelli's never wanted for food because of the farm. It was able to produce food for the family.
Bernardo was intellectual, trained in law but never practiced. The Machiavellis's lived on the margins of respectability, socially insecure as a result. Bernardo was friends with Chancellor Bartolomeo Scala. This shows that not holding office did not preclude him from having friends with high station in society/politics. Bernardo gave his son a classical education in rhetoric. [Livy, Plutrach and Thucydides] Niccolo often felt the present fell short of the past.
Other Notes:
Condottieri, Contractors who signed agreements with the state or principality that employed them as soldiers.
Five States in Italy 15th century -
- Papal States
- Naples
- Venice
- Milan
- Florence
1492 Lorenzo de Medici dies
1478 Pazzi Conspiracy - Niccolo is 9 years old
Chapter 2 - A Sword Unsheathed
Savonarola came into Florence with a fire & brimstone message after years of civil war following Lorenzo's death. Also tried a political agenda with "Treatise on the Constitution and Governing Florence," that had similar ideology to that of the Populani and Soderini's administration on a democratic system.
1494 Charles VIII of France, 28 years old, encouraged to lay claim to the Kingdom of Naples against the Spanish King of Aragon by Ludovico [Il Moro] Sfroza. Crossed the Alps following Hannibal's route. There is now a large foreign force on Italian soil. Pope Alexander VI did not like the idea of French troops on Italian soil. 1495 Alexander forms the "Holy League," in which Florence did not participate.
Charles VII of France
Piero deMedici, Lorenzo's son, now running the family. Not as talented or friendly as his father. 1494 Piero leaves Florence. He hands over fortresses in Sarazana & Pietrasanta to Charles III leaving Florence's northern border defenseless and to pay 200,000 florins. Cosimo's son Cardinal Giovanni de Medici also goes into exile. Ending 60 years of Medici influence in Florence. 1497 Piero de Medici tries to get back into Florence, but fails. He dies soon after.
Piero de Medici, The Unfortunate
Late 1494 Charles VIII leaves Florence for Naples. First months after his departure are chaotic in Florence.
- Ottimati (Optimates) return oligarchic nature of Medici power to aristocracy, only shared by a few people.
- Populani (Populists) had a wider, more representative cross section of the population participating in government. Piero Soderini's government in which Machiavelli served was a Populani administration.
Great Council modeled loosely on representative body which the Venice legislature/pool from which officers are chosen.
- 3,500 citizens - 1/3 serving a 6 month term
- 40,000 - 50,000 pop of Florence in 15th cent.
Hall of Great Council - Meeting place for the Great Council
Hall of the Great Council, Florence
The Studio - Florence's University
1494 Niccolo Machiavelli is 25 years old. 1494 Florence's population pays high taxes.
Charles VIII achieved unity in the 5 Italian city states, they all wanted him out. In 1495 Charles VIII reversed all of his triumphs of the previous year by loosing to Alexander's "Holy League," at the Battle of Fornovo, south of Parma. [1498 Charles VIII dies.]
1497 Alexander issues a papal bull excommunicating Savonarola from the church. Initially, the pope does not bother with Savonarola, but when he gets into politics and/or foreign policy Alexander takes notice. Compagnacci, gangs of youth roam the streets in a campaign of harassment and intimidation as they want 'old' Florence back with all the fun vices, not Savonarola's new fire and brimstone version. 1498 Savonorola taken into custody along with 2 of his lieutenants: Fra Silvestri and Fra Domenico. Savonorola is strappadoed and confesses to treason. He is soon killed.
Rodrigo Borgia/Pope Alexander VII
1498 Machiavelli is nominated to serve as Second Chancellor of the [Florentine] Republic as a civil servant. A position he served for most of his career. For this position he was paid 192 florins/year. In his position as the Second Chancellor Machiavelli had 10 -15 notaries and/or secretaries. These notaries and secretaries had a command of both Latin and contemporary Italian to drafts documents from/for superiors.
Pazzi
Medici - Families NOT paid for their service, whereas Machiavelli was a paid civil servant.
Soderini
Chapter 3 - The Civil Servant
29 was the minimum age to vote in the Great Council in Florence.
First Chancellor was a largely ceremonial writing managerial encomiums to the wisdom and greatness of the republic. Whereas, the Second Chancellor was a less prestigious position, mostly handling the correspondence of the state & some foreign affair duties shared with the First Chancellor's position. Machiavelli was additionally appointed Secretary of the Ten of War and Peace, handling the correspondence of the republic's military forces.
Elected positions came and went, but the salaried civil servants were the ones who kept the city going. Furthermore, government decisions were not made for the good of the city, but for the good of the political party, Populani in this case. [Sounds stunning like today's politics.] Machiavelli truly cared for the republic which he served. Success depended on adaptation to circumstances in Machiavelli's view, which is only too true.
Political success was prerequisite for economic success for men in Florence. Machiavelli worked horizontally along class lines and vertically among networks of patronage. Machiavelli's two assistants were Biagio Buonaccorsi and Agostino Vespucci and they were also his friends. (Agostino was cousins with Amerigo, who discovered South America.) Florence's government was judged to be weak by Machiavelli since decisions were made for strengthening and security of the party, not for the common good of the republic.
Catarina Sforza was the wife of the ruler of Forli, Girolamo Riaro, whose uncle was Pope Sixtus IV. She was also the illegitimate daughter of Galeazzo Maria Sforza and her uncle was Ludovico "Il Moro" Sfroza. Forli was 50 miles NE of Florence. Machiavelli was sent here to negotiate with Catarina for the hire of her troops to defend Florence. He was unsuccessful.
Catarina Sfroza of Forli
After Charles VIII dies in 1498, Louis XII, Charles's cousin, takes his place. In 1499 Alexander issues a papal bull to invalidate Louis's first marriage, so he could marry Anne, Charles's wife. France enters into an alliance with Florence. Tommaso Soderini, Ambassador to France from Florence, agrees to provide 500 spear men, 4000 Swiss pike men, 2000 gascons and 24,0000 ducats/month for protection to France. Machiavelli is sent to France to assist Tommaso.
Chapter 4 - Sir Nihil
Cesare Borgia, or Duke Valentino, siezes Forli. Catarina is put into jail in her own castle. Pesaro and Rimini are taken at the same time. Cesare threatens to take Bologna. There is quarreling over Pisa. Louis XII says Florence owes him 38,000 francs. Pier Francesco Losinghi replaces Machiavelli in France later in 1500 as Machiavelli was away for almost a year. In that time:
- Primavera, Machiavelli's sister, dies of fever
- Giovanni, her 13 year old son, has fever and recovers
- Totto, Machiavelli's brother, asks the council for more money to support the family. Machiavelli doesn't have enough money to live properly while at the French court.
1500 Treaty of Granada saves Florence from further bullying from Cesare.
1501 Machiavelli marries Marietta Corsini. She is in her late teens, whereas he is 32. [Piero del Nero, Machiavelli's boss and First Chancelor, marries Marietta's sister.] It was not a romantic match, but it was successful never the less. It was a step up for Machiavelli.
Cesare takes Piombino. Pisa thinks about an alliance with Cesare. Doesn't go further. Cesare decisive; whereas Florence is often indecisive on political moves/agendas. Urbino fell to Cesare. Urbino is 70 miles east of Florence. The noose tightens.
Quote: "It was a delicate three [France, Florence & Cesare Borgia] way dance among partners who circled each other warily, daggers half drawn." Cool!
Cesare Borgia, Duke Valentino
Chapter 5 - Exit the Dragon
This chapter goes into Cesare's various campaigns. I will limit the information presented here to the major milestone effecting Machiavelli. Cesare's troops were defeated at the Battle of Fossombrone.
Florence votes to make Gonfaloniere a life time position like the Doge of Venice. Piero Soderini is nominated to the position. He is the brother of the Bishop of Volterra and had, thus far, a distinguished career as a diplomat.
Machiavelli's political philosophy began to develop as he watched Florence flounder during Cesare's 3 Romagna campaings. Decisiveness was key. Machiavelli had a preference for order over anarchy, even when maintained by cruelty, but had higher praise when its done without cruelty. Great disasters were often the result of misplace kindness. He also focused on the character of the ruler. Cesare had a reputation for deception, rather than military strategy, which worked in his favor observed Machiavelli.
Machiavelli also believed in observation. He observed many of the important historical events of the day as the Second Chancellor of Florence on his various assignments for the republic. He also did not like a paid army. He believed in an army of the citizenry. They would better defend their homes. Florentines were not use to this as they had been contracting forces for awhile. Machiavelli started raising an army of locals in 1504.
"The worst thing about a weak republics is that they are irresolute, so that all of the choices they make, they are forced to make." [Chapter 7] The raising of an army of locals was viewed by the Ottimati or Optimates as a threat to their power. What if the mob took over? Whereas, the Populani or Populists as Soderini's administration was leaning toward thought this the proper route in the war against Pisa. Furthermore, it was cheaper than contracting a troops. Gave the citizenry more buy-in in defending their homes according to Machiavelli thought. [Chapter 7]
I found it interesting that Rome was malarial in the summer time in the late 1400, early 1500s. Malaria probably killed Pope Alexander VI and Cesare was sick with it. Not food poisoning as suspected. Alexander VI dies and the Orsini, who were not treated well during Alexander's papacy, took their revenge on Cesare. Cesare & Borgia followers took refuge in Castel Sant Angelo after Alexander's death. Cesare also had to recuperate.
Cardinal Francesco Todeschini becomes Pope Pius III and dies within a month. Cardinal Guiliano della Rovere than gets elected Pope Julius II.
Chapter 6 - Men of Low and Poor Standing
Machiavelli was involved in the day-to-day management of the military affairs of Florence. He was not trained in military tactics. War was going on with Pisa for some time. Leonardo presented him with a plan to divert the flow of the Arno and cut Pisa off from the flow of the river. Machiavelli got Soderini to sign off on the plan and they started to build a series of ditches and weirs to complete the project. From the start the project was fought with problems and went over budget. (Finances were always tight in Florence as the population was heavily taxed.) There was a terrible storm that alleviated months of work and the project was finally scrapped. [Brunelleschi tried something similar in Florence's war with Lucca 100 years earlier that also did not end well. The Luccan solider's busted the dams and the water ended up flooding the Florentine solider's camp instead of Lucca.]
1504 Machiavelli was instrumental in Leonardo securing the commission of The Battle of Anghiari, which was a major victory for the Florentine's 60 years earlier. Leonardo had a hard time completing this commission. The city of Florence had to draw up 2 contracts with Leonardo to complete the commission. The painting slide off the wall, like The Last Supper, due to how the oils were mixed into the water. This caused the plaster to dry slowly and unevenly. Eventually, this was painted over by Vassari. [Vassari is know better for his literary work, Lives of the Artists: Giotto, Massaccio, Lippi, Botticelli, Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian.]
More interestingly, across the hall in the Signoria, that is where Leonardo was painting The Battle of Anghiari, Michelangelo [Buonarotti] was commissioned to paint The Battle of Cascina. But he was summons to Rome to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Pope Julius II in 1501.
The short story of David by Michelangelo -
Maestro Simone da Fiesole was given a block of Carrera marble 9 braccia, arms lengths tall, to carve a statue for Santa Maria del Fiore. He messes up the sculpture and it is set aside. Michelangelo takes the discarded block of marble and out comes David. A figure to symbolize the republic, an underdog warrior, taking on and besting a more powerful adversary!
Chapter 7 - The Stars Align [See Chapter 5 for discussion on Machiavelli raising local troops for Florence's army.]
Gonsalvo de Cordoba, ruler of Naples sent by the Spainish King Ferdinand, defeats the French army 30 miles north of Naples at the Gargliano River. Piero de Medici dies in this battle. He drowns retreating trying not to be captured by the Spainish. Cardinal Giovanni de Medici now leads the family in exile from Florence.
1507 Machiavelli goes to Germany to assist Francesco Vettori. Vettori appointed ambassador to Maximillian I newly appointed Holy Roman Emperor. Maximillian wanted 50,000 ducats tribute from Florence and Vettori couldn't talk him out of it. In goes Machiavelli to negotiate. Machiavelli offers 30,000 ducats and Maximilian settles for 40,000 ducats. Machiavelli observes he has no money and no means to support himself and/or his court. Machiavelli uses this to his advantage when negotiating. He also observes the rough life of the German peasants versus that of Florentine's. [The Swiss held with Machiavelli's belief in an army of the citizenry. Swiss soldiers had an excellent reputation at the time.]
1509 War with Pisa dragging on... since 1494. Machiavelli recruited 30,000 troops from the hills around Florence for the defense of the city. He was not a skilled military tactician. Training the troops wasn't his forte. (He was a skilled negotiator. The two didn't meet. But when all is said and done, Soderini respects Machiavelli's opinion.) The strategy against Pisa was to starve the people out of the city. The military stripped the land around Pisa of their crops. The Florentine military was stationed around Lucca. Florence then enters Pisa victorious in the summer of 1509. A hard, long fought victory that did not bring much to Florence or it's treasury.
In his writings, Machiavelli starts to write about Fortuna, the capricious goddess who stands for unpredictability. Later on he also writes of virtue. I found this fascinating and found several interesting essays on the topic online.
Chapter 8 - Reversal of Fortune
1500's City States of Italy -
Republic of Venice - "Venice is lost in a single day the fruit of 800 years of painful toil." The Prince
Dutchy of Milan
Republic of Genoa and Corsica
Marques of Mantua
Republic of Florence
Republic of Sienna
Papal States
Kingdom of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Donato Bramate creates the initial design for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Raphael paints frescoes in Vatican chamber walls.
1509 Venice re-conquerors Padua.
Florence votes to make Gonfaloniere a life time position like the Doge of Venice. Piero Soderini is nominated to the position. He is the brother of the Bishop of Volterra and had, thus far, a distinguished career as a diplomat.
Machiavelli's political philosophy began to develop as he watched Florence flounder during Cesare's 3 Romagna campaings. Decisiveness was key. Machiavelli had a preference for order over anarchy, even when maintained by cruelty, but had higher praise when its done without cruelty. Great disasters were often the result of misplace kindness. He also focused on the character of the ruler. Cesare had a reputation for deception, rather than military strategy, which worked in his favor observed Machiavelli.
Machiavelli also believed in observation. He observed many of the important historical events of the day as the Second Chancellor of Florence on his various assignments for the republic. He also did not like a paid army. He believed in an army of the citizenry. They would better defend their homes. Florentines were not use to this as they had been contracting forces for awhile. Machiavelli started raising an army of locals in 1504.
"The worst thing about a weak republics is that they are irresolute, so that all of the choices they make, they are forced to make." [Chapter 7] The raising of an army of locals was viewed by the Ottimati or Optimates as a threat to their power. What if the mob took over? Whereas, the Populani or Populists as Soderini's administration was leaning toward thought this the proper route in the war against Pisa. Furthermore, it was cheaper than contracting a troops. Gave the citizenry more buy-in in defending their homes according to Machiavelli thought. [Chapter 7]
I found it interesting that Rome was malarial in the summer time in the late 1400, early 1500s. Malaria probably killed Pope Alexander VI and Cesare was sick with it. Not food poisoning as suspected. Alexander VI dies and the Orsini, who were not treated well during Alexander's papacy, took their revenge on Cesare. Cesare & Borgia followers took refuge in Castel Sant Angelo after Alexander's death. Cesare also had to recuperate.
Cardinal Francesco Todeschini becomes Pope Pius III and dies within a month. Cardinal Guiliano della Rovere than gets elected Pope Julius II.
Chapter 6 - Men of Low and Poor Standing
Machiavelli was involved in the day-to-day management of the military affairs of Florence. He was not trained in military tactics. War was going on with Pisa for some time. Leonardo presented him with a plan to divert the flow of the Arno and cut Pisa off from the flow of the river. Machiavelli got Soderini to sign off on the plan and they started to build a series of ditches and weirs to complete the project. From the start the project was fought with problems and went over budget. (Finances were always tight in Florence as the population was heavily taxed.) There was a terrible storm that alleviated months of work and the project was finally scrapped. [Brunelleschi tried something similar in Florence's war with Lucca 100 years earlier that also did not end well. The Luccan solider's busted the dams and the water ended up flooding the Florentine solider's camp instead of Lucca.]
1504 Machiavelli was instrumental in Leonardo securing the commission of The Battle of Anghiari, which was a major victory for the Florentine's 60 years earlier. Leonardo had a hard time completing this commission. The city of Florence had to draw up 2 contracts with Leonardo to complete the commission. The painting slide off the wall, like The Last Supper, due to how the oils were mixed into the water. This caused the plaster to dry slowly and unevenly. Eventually, this was painted over by Vassari. [Vassari is know better for his literary work, Lives of the Artists: Giotto, Massaccio, Lippi, Botticelli, Leonardo, Raphael, Michelangelo and Titian.]
More interestingly, across the hall in the Signoria, that is where Leonardo was painting The Battle of Anghiari, Michelangelo [Buonarotti] was commissioned to paint The Battle of Cascina. But he was summons to Rome to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling by Pope Julius II in 1501.
The short story of David by Michelangelo -
Maestro Simone da Fiesole was given a block of Carrera marble 9 braccia, arms lengths tall, to carve a statue for Santa Maria del Fiore. He messes up the sculpture and it is set aside. Michelangelo takes the discarded block of marble and out comes David. A figure to symbolize the republic, an underdog warrior, taking on and besting a more powerful adversary!
Chapter 7 - The Stars Align [See Chapter 5 for discussion on Machiavelli raising local troops for Florence's army.]
Gonsalvo de Cordoba, ruler of Naples sent by the Spainish King Ferdinand, defeats the French army 30 miles north of Naples at the Gargliano River. Piero de Medici dies in this battle. He drowns retreating trying not to be captured by the Spainish. Cardinal Giovanni de Medici now leads the family in exile from Florence.
1507 Machiavelli goes to Germany to assist Francesco Vettori. Vettori appointed ambassador to Maximillian I newly appointed Holy Roman Emperor. Maximillian wanted 50,000 ducats tribute from Florence and Vettori couldn't talk him out of it. In goes Machiavelli to negotiate. Machiavelli offers 30,000 ducats and Maximilian settles for 40,000 ducats. Machiavelli observes he has no money and no means to support himself and/or his court. Machiavelli uses this to his advantage when negotiating. He also observes the rough life of the German peasants versus that of Florentine's. [The Swiss held with Machiavelli's belief in an army of the citizenry. Swiss soldiers had an excellent reputation at the time.]
1509 War with Pisa dragging on... since 1494. Machiavelli recruited 30,000 troops from the hills around Florence for the defense of the city. He was not a skilled military tactician. Training the troops wasn't his forte. (He was a skilled negotiator. The two didn't meet. But when all is said and done, Soderini respects Machiavelli's opinion.) The strategy against Pisa was to starve the people out of the city. The military stripped the land around Pisa of their crops. The Florentine military was stationed around Lucca. Florence then enters Pisa victorious in the summer of 1509. A hard, long fought victory that did not bring much to Florence or it's treasury.
In his writings, Machiavelli starts to write about Fortuna, the capricious goddess who stands for unpredictability. Later on he also writes of virtue. I found this fascinating and found several interesting essays on the topic online.
Chapter 8 - Reversal of Fortune
1500's City States of Italy -
Republic of Venice - "Venice is lost in a single day the fruit of 800 years of painful toil." The Prince
Dutchy of Milan
Republic of Genoa and Corsica
Marques of Mantua
Republic of Florence
Republic of Sienna
Papal States
Kingdom of Naples, Sicily and Sardinia
Donato Bramate creates the initial design for St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. Raphael paints frescoes in Vatican chamber walls.
1509 Venice re-conquerors Padua.
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