Causes of the Transition from Republic to Empire - The Growing Importance of the Generals

I have spent a lot of time studying the transition of Rome from Republic to Empire over the last few years.  Recently I have read Rubicon:  The Last Years of the Roman Republic by Tom Holland and The Death of Caesar by Barry Strauss.  Both books have strengthened my belief that the political, economic and social conditions were right for a change that were bread over the previous 100 years.

Let's start with the Political element.
In the 100 years before Caesar's assassination, the Republic was expanding.  Rome was constantly at war.  The political situation is tricky and volatile. 

• Macedonian Wars (4) - ending around 150 BC
• Battle of Cornith - 146 BC
• Punic Wars (Carthage) - ending about 149 BC
• Jugurthan War - ending around 112 BC
• Social Wars (between Italian tribal groups) 91 - 88 BC
• Sulla's First Civil War - Sulla marches troops into Rome for the first time - 88 BC
• Sulla's Second Civil War + Dictator - 82 BC
• Servile Wars (3) - Slave Wars - ending around 73 BC
• Mithridic Wars (3) - ending around - 63 BC
• Siege of Jerusalem (Pompey) - 63 BC
• First Triumvariate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) - 59 BC 
• Caesar Crosses the Rubicon - 49 BC - Troops entering Italian soil for a second time

What I call the Great Generals were on the scene (or on the march):  Marius and Cinna.  Both men were great leaders and led Rome to great victories and expanded boarders.  Victory meant more money pouring into the treasury of Rome.  Great prosperity, more slaves etc...  There were even internal struggles that Rome must deal with:  Social Wars (citizens in city states wanting the right to vote) and Servile Wars (Slave Wars, remember Spartacus?).

Early on there is in-fighting between Generals:  Marius and Cinna.   Both Marius and Cinna had large armies.  In the end, Marius, who was consul seven (7) times beat Cinna, only consul three (3) times.  Cinna's troops turned on him as he was preparing to meet Marius for battle for command of the Mithradic war/s.

Marius was a Populare, for the people.  There was much dissent between himself and the Optimates or the Patrician class.  Whereas, his enemy, Sulla, was an Optimate, or of Patrician class.  (I think think Sulla was a 'new man,' growing up poor; but moved up as a very successful general.)  Sulla served under Marius in the Jugarthine and Gallic Wars.  He was appointed Governor of Cilia and held other official positions which made him a Patrician.  There was a power struggle between the Populares and the Optimates.  (Caesar was a Populare too.  His aunt Julia was married to Marius.)

This leads me right into the Social element.
Many of these men were 'New Men,' or men that just made their fortunes.  Not from the old Roman families.  They had wealth, military victories and power.  Yes, Power!  Their troops were loyal too them and they got much bounty when they won their wars against foreign lands.

A Short History of the Vatican & Other Interesting Facts

This short history of the Vatican is from Mistress of the Vatican by Eleanor Herman and Basilica by R. A. Scotti.

A Really Short History of the Vatican-
Built on the circus where Caligula held his chariot races.  He put an obelisk in the middle of the circus that was 1200 years old.  Christians were martyred in the arena.  Nero smeared the early Christians with tar and used them as human torches.  Imagine the smell.

The Vatican was built in the form of the Roman Court of Justice, a rectangular building separated into 3 sections by two rows of columns.

The apostle Paul was killed in the second purge of the Christians, beheaded on his way to the port city of Ostia.  The apostle Peter was crucified upside down as he was an unworthy proxy for Christ.

Constantine built a church on the place where Peter was buried.  The Basilica of St. Peter's in 326 AD.

Other Fun Facts-
Pope Nicholas V brings the Papacy back to Rome from Avignon in 1447 and decides to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica built by Constantine in 326 AD with architect Bernardo Rosellino.  Rosellino worked with Brunelleschi in Florence. He also founded the Vatican Library.

Women in the Church- Christianity was practiced in the home, the realm of the women since it had to be practiced in private.  Many Christians were persecuted.  As a result, women played a role.  Clergy married until Pope Siricius denies the marriage of clergy in the late 300's.  (St. Peter was married.)  Married clergy would leave their land/income to their son's and/or use their income for dowries for their daughters and not giving the land/money to the church on their death.  Ecclesiastical Inheritance. But the marriage of clergy went unheeded until 1050's when Pope Leo IX enslaved clerical wives to clean churches and prepare meals.  Being a clerical wife became very unpopular.

But still many Cardinals and Pope's married.

Olympia Maidalchini - A Formidible Woman

Mistress of the Vatican:  The True Story of Olympia Maidalchini by Eleanor Herman was a book I stumbled on by chance.  I happened to be browsing some titles on Isabelle D' Este, there aren't many, when I came across this book.  It looked interesting.  No, Olympia wasn't the legendary Pope Joan, but who was she.  I started reading...  I couldn't put the book down.  By the end there was a lot, maybe too much about Pope Innocent X, Gianbattista Pamphili, but he was after all her ticket into the Vatican.

Olympia Maidalchini Pamphili

Initially, Olympia's father wanted her to enter the convent.  She had no plans of doing that!  She out smarted a local priest her father got to talk her into going into the convent and then didn't have to enter it.  She was one smart young cookie.  She eventually marries Paolo Nini, the richest man in the town of Viterbro, Italy where she grew up. Sadly, Paolo dies young and leaves our lady with some money.  

Our young heiress, attracts a rich old noble who's family needed an infusion of money, Pamphilo Pamphili.  Olympia moves to Rome and marries him.  They are married for 22 years and have 3 children together.  Olympia has a brother-in-law that was a cannon lawyer, Gianbattista Pamphili.  Olympia and he become fast friends as Gianbattista likes to talk to and spend time with motherly ladies.  Were they having an affair?  The author suggests rumors going around Rome, but proves nothing either way.  Gainbattista had a reputation as a scholarly man and a good cannon lawyer, who was not easily corruptible.  A good reputation to have in Renaissance Italy.

Time passes and Gianbattista becomes the Papal Nuncio to Naples in the 1621 under Gregory XV.  He served there for 2 years and Olympia went with him to Naples.  (It took the papal courier 3 days to get from Naples to Rome.)  Gianbattista would send reports back to Rome weekly that were up to 15 pages long of the things occurring in Naples with regard to the Holy Roman Church.  Naples was controlled by Spain at this time.  Olympia's money was paramount in getting Gianbattista appointed as nuncio (keeping up appearances) and later made a cardinal.

Gianbattista Pamphili, Innocent X

 Later under Urban VIII, Barbarini, Gianbattista was made Papal Nuncio in Spain.  This was a key position that represented an elevation in status for the Pamphili family.  At the time there was a farm/veg market in front of the town house and it was not in good repair for a family seeking to have a Cardinal-ship in the family.

In 1623, Maffeo Barbarini was elected Pope Urban VIII.  In 1626 Gianbattista was appointed Papal Nunzio to Spain under King Philip IV.  His loyalty to Spain was never questioned in future, even when he was made Pope.  1n 1629 Gianbattista was made a Cardinal.  In 1634 - 1638 Olympia enlarged the size of the town house on Plaza Novana that the Pamphili family called home, which is now the Brazilian Embassy.  Girolamo and Carlo Rinaldi were the architects to transform the palace to what we know today.

Palazzo Pamphili

Gianbattista gets elected Pope Innocent X in 1644 - 1655.  Olympia ran the Vatican from behind the scenes for several years.  If you wanted to get something by Innocent, you had to get it before Olympia.  She was the first lady of Rome.  Gianbattista appoints Camillo, Olympia's son to be Cardinal Nephew.

This only lasted for 2 years until he married the Princess of Rossano, Olympia Alsobrandini, a rich widow of Paolo Borghese.  (Olympia wanted Camillo to marry Lucrezia Barbarini, but Camillo would not have it.  Camillo and his mother had a strained relationship.)  Olympia never really warmed up to her daughter-in-law.  Olympia's other children:  Maria and Costanza.  Maria marries Andrea Giustiniani and has her grand-daughter Olympiuccia.

Olympia Aldobrandini, Princess of Rossano

Olympia took on many causes during her time.  One was dowry-less girls.  In 1645, Olympia was made Princess of San Martino.  Here she built a town to help dowry-less girls (and ladies of the night who wanted to reform.)  It was here in San Martino, not far from Veterbro, that Bernini helped design a church and Olympia's tomb.  Today there are descendants of the original inhabitants living in the town.

Olympia also has the Fountain of the Four Rivers commission for the front of Plaza Novana.  Using the tumbled down obelisk brought back to Rome by Caligula from Egypt. The obelisk had been brought down by the Goths in 527 and sat by the San Sebastian Gate of Rome ever since.  Olympia commissioned Bernini to make a tremendous fountain to enrich the plaza.  The rivers represented were the Nile in Africa, Danube in Germany, Ganges in India and the Plate in South America.

Fountain of the Four Rivers

When Gianbattista was Innocent X was elected Pope, the Pamphili family took away all the honors from the Barbarini family.  There were many reasons for this, but chiefly the Vatican was in huge debt.  (Barbarini's supported France and Pamphili's supported Spain.)  The Barbarini family was exiled for 2 years to France.  Over time, Olympia's granddaughter, Olympiuccia, was forced to marry Maffeo Barbarini, age 22 in 1653.  By age 13 she was pregnant.  (Yuck!)  She was forced to do this to unite the two families.

Olympia Giustiniani Barbarini

Olympia is exiled from Rome to San Martino in 1650 for 2 years.  She had been selling papal offices, managing the papal accounts and adding money, position to the Pamphili family.  Innocent decides to take over and manage things on his own with his Cardinal friends.  Eventually, Olympia comes back to Rome, but in a reduced capacity.

She dies of plague in 1657 in San Martino.  She created a dynasty and ran the papacy from the side lines for a while.  A formidable woman!